[24] But Barbary and Turkey were much closer, and so in the late 1570s Elizabeth I and her advisers began to openly encourage the trade with the former and proposed a significant new initiative with the latter. 2. UK owes its existence to Ottomans | Column - Daily Sabah The Ottomans accepted Harborne and other Englishmen as dhimmi (zimmi), protected guests who paid a tax to remain unmolested in Muslim territory. ", Margaret M. Jefferson, "Lord Salisbury and the Eastern Question, 1890-1898. Henry VIII was known to dress in fashionable Ottoman attire, appearing at courtly events dressed in Turkish silken and velvet robes, and in 1533 as he broke from Rome he entertained plans to join a Franco-Ottoman alliance to combat the Habsburg-Papal axis that united the two great European Catholic powers of Pope Clement VII and the emperor Charles V. Holbeins famous painting The Ambassadors (1533) depicts the French ambassadors who came to London that year to broker the alliance. In 1494, both the Papacy and the Kingdom of Naples petitioned the Sultan directly for his assistance against Charles VIII of France in the First Italian War. For somewhat different data which nevertheless confirm this point see Issawi, op. "Agent of empire? What people are saying - Write a review. Egypt was lost in 17981805. The first revolt began on 6 March/21 February 1821 in the Danubian Principalities, but it was soon put down by the Ottomans. [38][39] However, these envoys were most likely just Central and Western Asian merchants trying to conduct trade in China, since pretending to be envoys was the only way to enter the Chinese border pass. In Transcaucasia, the Ottomans renounced their claims to most of western Georgia. The Congress of Berlin also allowed Austria-Hungary to occupy Bosnia and Herzegovina and Great Britain to take over Cyprus. This went against long-standing papal edicts forbidding Christians from trading with Muslims on pain of excommunication. 277-9. ", Selim Deringil, "The Ottoman Response to the Egyptian Crisis of 188182". They were a unique practice of Muslim diplomacy that was adopted by Ottoman rulers. The Ottoman-French Treaty of 1740 marked the apogee of French influence in the Ottoman Empire in the eighteenth century. These early British perceptions are traced in Chapter 3, identifying a range of perceptions none of which achieve a In September 1821, the Greeks under the leadership of Theodoros Kolokotronis captured Tripolitsa. IR419 International Relations of the Middle East (1.0) # IR422 Conflict and Peacebuilding (1.0) . A. Out of this chaos, the commander of the Albanian regiment, Muhammad Ali (Kavalali Mehmed Ali Pasha) emerged as a dominant figure and in 1805 was acknowledged by the Sultan as his "viceroy" in Egypt; the title implied subordination to the Sultan but this was in fact a polite fiction: Ottoman power in Egypt was finished and Muhammad Ali, an ambitious and able leader, established a dynasty in Egypt that lasted until 1952. Is America's Alliance with Turkey Doomed? | Pakistan Defence Anglo-Ottoman Relations and the Image of the Turk in Tamburlaine Jonathan Burton Journal of Medieval and Early Modern Studies (2000) 30 (1): 125-156. https://doi.org/10.1215/10829636-30-1-125 Cite Share Permissions The text of this article is only available as a PDF. The churches quickly settled that problem, but it escalated out of hand as Russia put continuous pressure on the Ottomans. William Gladstone in the 1870s sought to build a Concert of Europe that would support the survival of the empire. Another peace treaty was signed in Tunisia in February 1658 that further promoted Anglo-Ottoman relations. In 1579 the Norfolk-born merchant William Harborne arrived in Constantinople to represent yet another new Elizabethan trading initiative: the Levant Company. angloamericanobogota.edu.co Competitors - Top Sites Like [25] In 1507, when ordered to accept Selim I as his rightful suzerain, Babur refused and gathered Qizilbash servicemen in order to counter the forces of Ubaydullah Khan during the Battle of Ghazdewan in 1512. One of the most striking instances of such relations which has a particular resonance today is Englands longstanding encounter with the Islamic world. G. R. Potter, "The Fall of Constantinople? [49] The issue was control of Central and Eastern Europe. [10][11] The origins of the capitulations comes from Harun al Rashid and his dealings with the Frankish kingdoms, but they were also used by both his successors and by the Byzantine Empire.[11]. War was declared on Russia on 27 December and on Britain in March 1807. The Serbs launched not only a national revolution but a social one as well. HY459 The Ottoman Empire and its Legacy, 1299-1950 (1.0) HY461 East Asia in the Age of Imperialism, 1839-1945 . Elizabeth was by this time writing cordial letters to Sultan Murad III proposing an anti-Spanish political-religious alliance. The battle was waged as a final part of the Caucasus campaign, but as the beginning of the Armenian-Azerbaijani war. ", "Military Casualties-World War-Estimated", Statistics Branch, GS, War Department, 25 February 1924; cited in, Totten, Samuel, Paul Robert Bartrop, Steven L. Jacobs (eds. The metal came from the roofs and bells stripped from deconsecrated Catholic churches and monasteries. The British Royal Navy sank the French fleet at Battle of the Nile. 191 0 obj <>/Filter/FlateDecode/ID[<7DA8CB34545AED41A626FFA9E3810843>]/Index[174 31]/Info 173 0 R/Length 93/Prev 405579/Root 175 0 R/Size 205/Type/XRef/W[1 3 1]>>stream Instead Suleiman's empire while large, failed to keep pace with the rapid advances taking place in Europe. The United Kingdom signed a free trade agreement with Turkey on 29 December 2020. Most of the battles took place in the Crimean peninsula, which the Allies finally seized. Anglo-Ottoman Relations and the Image of the Turk in Ottoman troops continued to garrison the capital, Belgrade, until 1867. There were a number of factors that conspired to influence the Ottoman government, and encourage them into entering the war. 2, No. The brief French invasion of Egypt led by Napoleon Bonaparte began in 1798. Both countries currently maintain relations via the British Embassy in Ankara[1] and the Turkish Embassy in London. (p 388). Holdings: British-Ottoman relations, 1661-1807 In 1828 the Egyptian army withdrew under pressure of a French expeditionary force. Business-focused, driven, and highly adaptable HR professional whose journey has thus far ranged across Natural Resources, Consumer Goods, Education, Professional Services, and Manufacturing industries.<br><br>Always open to understanding different perspectives, I pride myself on my strong sense of ownership, ability to collaborate across teams, communicate effectively, learn on the fly, and . Selim I defeated the Mameluke army that controlled Egypt in 1517. In 1585 she backed the creation of the Barbary Company, formalising the longstanding trade. British-Ottoman relations, 1661-1807 : commerce and diplomatic practice in eighteenth-century Istanbul / The British Embassy in Istanbul was unique among other diplomatic missions in the long eighteenth century in being financed by a private commercial monopoly, the Levant Company. Moldavia and Wallachia remained under nominal Ottoman rule, but would be granted independent constitutions and national assemblies. In 2010, the BBC reported Prime Minister Cameron's 'anger' at slow pace of Turkish EU negotiations. [6], In 1600, an Anglo-Moroccan alliance was formed between England and the Ottoman vassal states of the Barbary Coast. Oxford: University Press of America. [68], The Greek War of Independence was a successful uprising waged by Greek revolutionaries against the Ottoman Empire between 1821 and 1830. [16][17] In 14131421, Mehmed I "The Restorer" reestablished central authority in Anatolia. Following news that the combined OttomanEgyptian fleet was going to attack the island of Hydra, the allied fleets intercepted the Ottoman navy and won a decisive victory at the Battle of Navarino. [52][53], The Polish opposition was defeated by Alexander Suvorov. [32] According to John Norton, additional weaknesses of Suleiman included his conscription of Christian children, maltreatment of subject peoples, and obsession with his own prestige. On his return to England Jenkinson was appointed as the first representative of the newly formed Muscovy Company [a body of English merchants trading with Russia] and sent to trade with the Safavid shah of Iran, Tahmasp I. ", Viorel Panaite, "Power Relationships in the Ottoman Empire: The Sultans and the Tribute-Paying Princes of Wallachia and Moldavia from the Sixteenth to the Eighteenth Century. Its old protector Britain was no longer a close ally. Louis II was killed, thus ending the Jagiellonian dynasty in Hungary and Bohemia. William Harborne and the Trade with Turkey, 1578-1582: A Documentary Study of the First Anglo-Ottoman Relations S. A. Skilliter British Academy, London, 1977 - England - 291 pages 0 Reviews. Selim closely followed Western military forms. Anglo American hiring Human Resources Coordinator in Moranbah [46] Relations with Java continued into the 17th century, even after the Sultanate of Demak was succeeded by the Sultanate of Mataram. Its emphasis on Anglo-Continental relations ensures a firm basis in English literature, but its particular appeal lies in its European point of view, and in the perspectives it opens up into other areas of early modern . [73], Economic stagnation prevailed in Ottoman lands areas in the 1840s and 1850s at a time when rapid industrialization characterized Britain and Western Europeareas that also expanded their commerce in the Levant. Selim realized the importance of diplomatic relations with other nations, and pushed for permanent embassies in the courts of all the great nations of Europe, a hard task because of religious prejudice towards Muslims. This move was repeated by Venice, France and England in trying to block Dutch ambassador Cornelius Haga in 1612. [1], After 1600 wars were increasingly expensive and the Empire never had an efficient system of taxation. PDF The British Mercantile Interest and Influence in the Ottoman Trade [21] Boris Johnson, Prime Minister of the United Kingdom has historically been a passionate supporter of Turkey's EU aspirations. Serbia gained considerable internal autonomy from the Ottoman Empire in two uprisings in 1804 (led by ore Petrovi Karaore) and 1815 (led by Milo Obrenovi). to Mehmed II. On 14 September, the Ottoman forces captured Baku with their coalition forces. [61] Selim, a cultured poet and musician, carried on an extended correspondence with Louis XVI of France. Port-Cities of the Eastern Mediterranean 1800-1914- Basil C. Gounaris, 1993 The Precarious Life and Slow Death of the Mixed Courts of Egypt- Nathan J. The Venetians had been turning a blind eye to such injunctions in their trade with Muslim kingdoms for centuries. In a response to a coup d'tat orchestrated by the military junta of Greece to unite the island with mainland Greece, Turkey invaded the island in June 1974. Initiated by Queen Elizabeth I upon sending the Ottoman Sultan Mehmed III an organ, Anglo-Ottoman music-historical relations date back to the sixteenth century. [16] Annually, around 2.5 million Britons take holidays in Turkey,[17] while 100,000 Turks travel to the UK for business or pleasure. In 1586, when Sir Francis Drake attacked Cartagena, Spain, he captured several Turks including Chinano and brought them back to London. The Turks formed an alliance with the Polish opposition forces of the Bar Confederation, while Russia was supported by Great Britain, which offered naval advisers to the Russian navy. Gul Tokay, (Historian), "Anglo-Ottoman Relations and the Origins of WWI, 1912-1914: An Assessment." Ozan Arslan (Izmir Economics University), ""His Majesty's or the Sultan's Ships: the "Seized Dreadnoughts Crisis" of August 1914 or the End of the Ottoman-British Friendship." ", Karpat, Kemal H. "The entry of the ottoman empire into world war I. although the Ottoman Empire was the nominal owner, in practice Britain made all the decisions. Wir freuen uns auf Sie! The 1840s were a decade of high imperial romance between the Ottomans and their British allies on the European stage. Jenkinson successfully established the first ever commercial privileges for the English to trade freely in Ottoman lands. Anglo-Ottoman Relations In The Nineteenth Century: Mustafa Reid Paa's Memorandum to Palmerston Turgut Suba Abstract The Tanzimat signifies the beginning of a new era in Turkish history. [45] By the 1580s, Spanish observers like Melchor Davalos were becoming increasingly alarmed at the number of Ottoman forces operating in the Ternate Sultanate and Brunei Sultanate; the Ottomans helped the Bruneians to expel Spanish invaders once and for all after the Castilian War. [45] In the late 16th and early 17th centuries, the Uzbeks and Ottomans launched semi-coordinated military offensives against Iran. The first stories of the Islamic faith - as well as its imperial power - entered England with the Crusades. Anglo Cornish Poetry 1549 1928 . The ambassadors and British-Ottoman relations The hefty tomes of SP97 contain letters, translations, memorials, and financial accounts, primarily in English, but with a significant number in Italian - the diplomatic lingua franca in the Ottoman Empire until the nineteenth century - and a number of documents in Ottoman Turkish and Latin. According to Similarweb data of monthly visits, angloamericanobogota.edu.co's top competitor in January 2023 is comunidadvirtualcaa.co with 92.2K visits. Anglo American hiring Performance Coordinator in Middlemount As a result, it was rarely used, apart from its use against Napoleon's expeditionary force at Gaza and Rosetta. ", This page was last edited on 14 February 2023, at 01:38. The old system depended on Janissaries, who had largely lost their military effectiveness. Tardy, Lajos: Beyond the Ottoman Empire: 14th-16th century Hungarian [and Habsburg Anti-Ottoman] diplomacy in the East 1978 Szeged JATE transl. ", Mtys kirly levelei [Diplomatic letters of Matthias Corvinus-some of them to Emperos Mehmed II and Emperor Bayezid II]: Klgyi osztly / kzread Frakni Vilmos, I Rakoczi Gyrgy es a Porta Levelek es diplomaciai iratok[George> Rakoczi I and the Porta[=Ottoman government. [15], The Ottoman domain became increasingly powerful and by 1400 was a crucial part of the European states system and actively played a role in their affairs, due in part to their coterminous periods of development. The Byzantine Empire was shrinking, but it held tenaciously onto its capital at Constantinople. By exploring Churchill's nineteenth-century youth and background, this article will reveal that Churchill attitudes and views of an Anglo/Turkish alliance in the Second World War was shaped by the context of nineteenth-century geostrategic politics like the 'Great Game' and . The Ottoman Empire's diplomatic structure was unconventional and departed in many ways from its European counterparts. The correspondence regarding Al-Annuris trip reveals that there was another intriguing aspect of his negotiations with Elizabeth I. Al-Annuri was a Morisco a Spanish-born Muslim who had converted to Christianity. [48] The coalition was organized by Pope Innocent XI and included the Papal States, the Holy Roman Empire under Habsburg Emperor Leopold I, the PolishLithuanian Commonwealth of John III Sobieski, and the Venetian Republic; Russia joined the League in 1686. diplomatic history of Anglo-Turkish relations. The Treaty of Bucharest ceded to Russia the eastern half of the Principality of Moldavia, as well as Bessarabia. [67] The Ottomans had extricated themselves from a potentially disastrous war with a slight loss of territory. With Harbornes help, Elizabeths merchants began a contraband trade shipping scrap-metal to Constantinople which was then made into munitions for the Ottomans wars with the Spanish and Persians. endstream endobj startxref The Ottomans collaborated with Francis I of France and his Protestant allies in the 1530s while fighting the Habsburgs. The Greeks were factionalized and fought their own civil war. Join us as a Head of Monitoring, Evaluation and Learning.. [8] In 1583, the ambassadors from Venice and France would attempt unsuccessfully to block William Harborne of England from taking up residence in Istanbul. Supplies on both sides came using fixed prices, taxes, and confiscation. Russia was defeated but the casualties were very heavy on all sides, and historians look at the entire episode as a series of blunders.[75][76]. They have also been allied several times, such as in the Crimean War. Chern Wei Tan - HR Advisor - Anglo American | LinkedIn The sultan then gave the French freedom of trade throughout the empire, and plans were drawn up for an invasion of Italy from both the north and the south in 1537. [57], As the 19th century progressed, the Ottoman Empire grew weaker and Britain increasingly became its protector, even fighting the Crimean War in the 1850s to help it out against Russia. The war's loser often paid cash reparations to the winner, who thereby recouped the cost of the war. 1, (January 2021), pp. [62][63] Prince William of Orange coordinated his strategic moves with those of the Ottomans during the Turkish negotiations with Philip II of Spain in the 1570s. Traditionally, foreign affairs were conducted by the Reis l-Kttab (Chief Clerk or Secretary of State) who also had other duties. Previous to this I completed a PhD in international history at the LSE, with research publications, higher education teaching and online course design experience. During the following centuries, there were sporadic but unsuccessful Greek uprisings against Ottoman rule. Even Henry VIIIs split from Rome in the 1530s was seen as a religious controversy involving high European politics that had little bearing on everyday life in the countrys shires. Relations with the Aceh Sultanate started in the 1530s but the affair later developed into an alliance by the 1570s. This vision sparked border disputes such as the Taba Crisis over the frontier between British-ruled Egypt and Ottoman Syria. [79], The Russo-Turkish War of 18771878 saw the Ottomans lose to a coalition led by the Russian Empire and composed of Bulgaria, Romania, Serbia, and Montenegro. 0 [4] Selim I move south and took control of Mecca and the West Arabian Coast, suppressed revolts in Anatolia and Syria, and formed an alliance with Algiers. The President of Turkey Kenan Evren paid a state visit to the United Kingdom in July 1988. Turkey and the UK signed a free trade agreement on 29 December 2020 following the end of Brexit transition period, as the UK became no longer a part of European Union-Turkey Customs Union. The war began with Russian demands to protect Christian sites in the Holy Land. By September, the invaders were defeated in full retreat down the Danube. The Marketing Assistant's role will also include the following and it is anticipated that when required, you will provide administrative assistance with other markets: * responding to enquiries and distributing the Group's promotional materials to existing and potential clients and agents in all our markets; * dealing efficiently with . PDF British-Ottoman Relations, 1713- 1779: Commerce, Diplomacy, and - Gale Region: Middle East. ", M. Abir, "Modernisation, Reaction and Muhammad Ali's 'Empire'", F. Ismail, "The making of the treaty of Bucharest, 18111812,", Harry N. Howard, "The Balkan Wars in perspective: their significance for Turkey. While the great flowering of Elizabethan relations with the Islamic world came to an end, they left an indelible mark on English culture that remains with us today. The British government worked with Ali to take over the strategically significant port of Aden, despite opposition from Constantinople. . By 1800 the Porte permitted the creation of British trading stations in Mocha, Yemen. Overview of the foreign relations of the Ottoman Empire, India, China, Central Asia, and Southeast Asia, Serbian Revolution and Autonomous Principality (18041878), Eliana Balla and Noel D. Johnson, "Fiscal crisis and institutional change in the Ottoman Empire and France. Journal of Anglo-Turkish Relations, Volume 2, Number 1, January 2021 3 He died in 1520 as he was preparing an invasion of the island of Rhodes. Sign up to our email newsletters Sign Up Email Preferences . This August marks the centenary of the Treaty of Svres, signed between the Allied powers and the Ottoman Empire in 1920. 3. MacArthur-Seal, "Turkey and Britain: from enemies to allies, 19141939. In the early 20th century Austria-Hungary annexed Bosnia and Herzegovina, the Bulgarian Declaration of Independence soon followed. Complete independence arrived in 1878. Much of the Moroccan elite fighting force was made up of soldiers with a Morisco heritage, which made them as much anti-Spanish as anti-Ottoman. Despite memories of the terrible defeat at Mohcs in 1526, elite Hungarian attitudes were become strongly anti-Russian This led to active support for the Turks in the media, but only in a peaceful way, since the foreign policy of the Austro-Hungarian monarchy remained neutral.[81]. %%EOF He was then transferred to the Ottoman theatre of operations, where in 1773 and 1774 he won several minor and major battles following the previous grand successes of the Russian Field-Marshal Pyotr Rumyantsev at Larga and Kagula. Such interactions continued during t. [40] One of these merchants was Ali Akbar Khitai, who visited the Ming dynasty during the reign of Emperor Zhengde. The Ottomans spread the use of firearms into Morocco and Bornu, but Bornu and Morocco later allied against the Ottomans. Serbia played a central role in the Balkan wars of the early 20th century, which practically eliminated the Ottoman presence in Europe[71], The Russo-Turkish War of 18281829 was sparked by the Greek War of Independence of 18211829. [16] Although the French had sought an alliance with the Ottomans as early as 1531, one was not concluded until 1536. [77] It proved quite difficult to reach Russian territory, and the Royal Navy could not defeat the Russian defences in the Baltic. During the Classical Age of the Empire the law fell into disuse, as it was considered a privilege by non-Muslims to convert to Islam, and they did not attempt to convert back to their original religion. Anglo-Eastern entered expedition cruise sector with acquisition of CMI "For nearly 50 years, Anglo-Eastern has been managing cargo vessels, from Liked by Priyanka Gupta GP care Solutions GmbH auf der Thringen Messe vom 04.03. bis 05.03.2023, besuchen Sie uns. It lost lands in Hungary and Poland, as well as part of the western Balkans. The Battle of Baku, also known as the Liberation of Baku, was a World War I battle that took place between August and September 1918 between the Ottoman-Azerbaijani coalition forces led by Nuri Pasha and the later Soviet forces between Bolshevik and Dashnak Baku, which the British later succeeded Armenian-Belarusian forces, led by Lionel Dunsterville, saw briefly how Soviet Russia was entering the war again. ", MacArthur-Seal, Daniel-Joseph. With the rise of the Ottoman Empire as a global force following the fall of Constantinople in 1453, the early Tudors became aware that Islam was both a threat to Christianity but also a potential ally in the shifting sands of European politics and diplomacy. Did Britain defeat the Ottoman Empire? - Quora The British, under General Allenby during the Arab Revolt under the guidance of British intelligence officers, the most famous being T. E. Lawrence, contributed to the defeat of the Ottoman forces in 1917 in which British and French forces occupied the Sinai and the majority of Greater Syria. In 1577 Rowlie was captured by Ottoman pirates off Algiers, castrated and converted to Islam. Selim III (17891807) in 1789 found that the Empire had been considerably reduced due to conflicts outside the realm. About: Anglo-Turkish War (1807-1809) - dbpedia.org William Harborne remained in Constantinople for eight years, working closely with the Ottoman court, who referred to him as Luteran elchisi the Lutheran ambassador. Margaret M. Jefferson, "Lord Salisbury and the Eastern Question, 1890-1898. Chinano (a corruption of Sinan) was captured by Spanish privateers in the eastern Mediterranean, enslaved and taken to Colombia in the early 1580s. Perceptions of the Muslim faith were predictably confused and generally hostile. In 1814, a secret organization called Filiki Eteria (Society of Friends) was founded with the aim of liberating Greece, encouraged by the revolutionary fervor gripping Europe in that period. Egypt was lost in 1798-1805. The National Bank of Turkey and British foreign policy. The Capitulations enabled English merchants to trade freely throughout the Ottoman dominions, giving them preferential rates on customs duties, and also protecting any Englishman attacked by Catholics or Muslims. Murad responded with letters of his own and the pair established an affable correspondence that continued throughout the 1580s. ", Salin, Ibrahm . [citation needed] As the fifth and seventeenth largest global economies (by GDP) respectively, the UK and Turkey are also the second and seventh largest European economies.[23]. by Duke University Press Article PDF first page preview The sultanate was abolished on 1 November 1922, and the last sultan, Mehmed VI (reigned 191822), left the country on 17 November 1922. The proposals foundered due to Elizabeths preference for sustaining her longer-held alliance with the infinitely more powerful Ottomans, and al-Annuri was recalled to Morocco. [65] The expulsion of the French in 1801 by Ottoman, Mamluk, and British forces was followed by four years of anarchy in which Ottomans, Mamluks, and Albanians who were nominally in the service of the Ottomans wrestled for power. In Australia, we operate five steelmaking coal mines in Queensland's Bowen Basin, and have additional joint venture interests in steelmaking coal and . These agreements were temporary, and subject to renewal by subsequent Sultans. ", Economic history of the Ottoman Empire Finance, International relations of the Great Powers (18141919) Ottoman Empire, International relations of the Great Powers (18141919), British foreign policy in the Middle East, Stratford Canning, 1st Viscount Stratford de Redcliffe, List of diplomatic missions of the Ottoman Empire, Ministry of Foreign Affairs (Ottoman Empire), Decline and modernization of the Ottoman Empire, Foundations of the Ottoman Foreign Ministry, "Between Two Universal Empires: Ottoman-China Connections in the Sixteenth Century", "Between the Islamic and Chinese Universal Empires: The Ottoman Empire, Ming Dynasty, and Global Age of Explorations", "The Tqmq (Golden Horde), the Qazaq Khanate, the Shbnid Dynasty, Rm (Ottoman Empire), and Moghlistan in the XIV-XVI Centuries: from Original Sources", 10.1093/acprof:oso/9780195377828.001.0001, "The Ottoman Empire Relations with the Nusantara (Spice Islands)", https://tti.abtk.hu/kiadvanyok/kiadvanytar/david-geza-fodor-pal-eds-hungarian-ottoman-military-and-diplomatic-relations-in-the-age-of-suleyman-the-magnificent/download, "Les ambassades occidentales Constantinople et la diffusion d'une certaine image de l'Orient", Comptes rendus des sances de l'Acadmie des Inscriptions et Belles-Lettres, https://vmek.oszk.hu/mobil/konyvoldal.phtml?id=20116#_home, https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Foreign_relations_of_the_Ottoman_Empire&oldid=1136431785, Articles with dead external links from July 2022, Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike License 3.0, Bailey, Frank E. "The Economics of British Foreign Policy, 182550.